Reading comprehension is the ability to understand, interpret, and analyze texts. It is a fundamental skill that underpins successful learning and academic achievement. The National Reading Panel (NRP) identified reading comprehension as one of the five critical components of effective reading instruction, emphasizing its central role in literacy. This blog post explores what reading comprehension is, why it is important, and how current research continues to highlight its essential role in literacy and overall academic success.

What is Reading Comprehension?

Reading comprehension involves multiple processes that enable readers to make sense of written text. These processes include:

• Decoding: The ability to recognize and process written words.
• Vocabulary Knowledge: Understanding the meanings of words and how they are used in context.
• Fluency: The ability to read text accurately and smoothly, which allows for better focus on understanding the text.
• Background Knowledge: Prior knowledge and experiences that readers bring to a text, which help them make connections and infer meaning.
• Comprehension Strategies: Techniques that readers use to make sense of text, such as summarizing, questioning, predicting, and visualizing.

Effective reading comprehension is not just about reading the words on a page but involves an active engagement with the text, leading to a deeper understanding and the ability to apply the information.

The Importance of Reading Comprehension

The National Reading Panel's report highlighted several reasons why reading comprehension is crucial:

• Foundation for Academic Success: Reading comprehension is essential for academic success across all subjects. Students who can understand and interpret text are better equipped to learn new information, follow instructions, and engage in critical thinking. This skill is foundational for subjects such as science, social studies, and mathematics.
• Critical Thinking and Problem Solving: Reading comprehension fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills. By understanding and analyzing texts, students learn to evaluate information, make inferences, and draw conclusions. These skills are vital for academic achievement and real-world problem-solving.
• Lifelong Learning: Reading comprehension is a gateway to lifelong learning. Individuals who can comprehend texts effectively are more likely to continue learning throughout their lives. This ability opens up opportunities for personal growth, career advancement, and informed citizenship.
• Enhanced Communication Skills: Effective reading comprehension contributes to better communication skills. Understanding complex texts and diverse perspectives helps individuals articulate their thoughts and ideas clearly and persuasively, both in writing and speaking.
• Cognitive Development: Reading comprehension supports cognitive development by engaging the brain in complex processes of understanding, analyzing, and synthesizing information. This engagement enhances cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and executive functioning.

Current Research on Reading Comprehension

Since the publication of the NRP Report, further research has continued to support the importance of reading comprehension. Key findings from recent studies include:

• Importance of Background Knowledge: Research emphasizes the role of background knowledge in reading comprehension. Readers with relevant prior knowledge about a topic are better able to understand and retain new information. This finding underscores the importance of integrating content knowledge with reading instruction.
• Role of Vocabulary: Vocabulary knowledge is a critical component of reading comprehension. Studies show that a rich vocabulary enhances readers' ability to understand and interpret text. Effective vocabulary instruction, therefore, is essential for improving reading comprehension.
• Use of Comprehension Strategies: Teaching comprehension strategies explicitly is highly effective. Strategies such as summarizing, questioning, predicting, and visualizing help readers actively engage with the text and improve their understanding.
• Impact of Motivation and Engagement: Motivation and engagement play significant roles in reading comprehension. Students who are motivated and engaged in reading are more likely to invest the effort required to understand complex texts. Creating a motivating and engaging reading environment is crucial for fostering comprehension.
• Technology Integration: Technology can support reading comprehension by providing interactive and engaging reading experiences. Digital tools, such as e-books and reading apps, offer features like annotations, multimedia elements, and interactive questions that enhance comprehension.

Practical Strategies for Developing Reading Comprehension

To maximize the effectiveness of reading comprehension instruction, educators should incorporate evidence-based strategies into their teaching practices. Here are some practical tips:

• Activate Prior Knowledge: Help students activate their prior knowledge before reading. Discuss what they already know about the topic and how it relates to the new text. This strategy helps students make connections and set a purpose for reading.
• Teach Vocabulary Explicitly: Provide explicit vocabulary instruction to enhance students' understanding of keywords and phrases in the text. Use various methods, such as word maps, context clues, and direct teaching, to build vocabulary knowledge.
• Use Comprehension Strategies: Teach students specific comprehension strategies, such as summarizing, questioning, predicting, and visualizing. Model these strategies during read-alouds and guided reading sessions, and provide opportunities for students to practice them independently.
• Encourage Active Reading: Encourage students to engage in active reading by annotating the text, asking questions, and making predictions. Use graphic organizers and note-taking strategies to help students organize their thoughts and track their understanding.
• Foster a Love of Reading: Create a motivating and engaging reading environment. Provide a diverse selection of reading materials that cater to students' interests and reading levels. Encourage independent reading and provide time for students to share and discuss what they have read.
• Integrate Technology: Incorporate technology to enhance reading comprehension. Use digital tools and resources, such as e-books, interactive reading apps, and online discussion forums, to provide engaging and interactive reading experiences.
• Differentiated Instruction: Differentiate reading comprehension instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners. Provide additional support for struggling readers and challenge advanced readers with more complex texts and higher-order thinking tasks.
• Monitor Progress: Regularly assess students' reading comprehension skills using various assessment tools, such as quizzes, written responses, and comprehension questions. Use the assessment data to inform instruction and provide targeted support.

Case Study: Effective Reading Comprehension Instruction in Action

To illustrate the practical application of these strategies, let’s look at a case study from a fifth-grade classroom.

Classroom Context:

Mr. Anderson is a fifth-grade teacher who prioritizes reading comprehension in his literacy instruction. He uses a combination of explicit strategy instruction, vocabulary building, and engaging activities to enhance his students' comprehension skills.

Implementation:

• Activate Prior Knowledge: Before reading a new text, Mr. Anderson engages students in a discussion about what they already know about the topic. He encourages them to share their experiences and make connections to the text.
• Teach Vocabulary Explicitly: Mr. Anderson introduces key vocabulary words before reading. He uses word maps and context clues to help students understand the meanings and uses of these words. He also encourages students to use the new vocabulary in their writing and discussions.
• Use Comprehension Strategies: Mr. Anderson teaches specific comprehension strategies, such as summarizing, questioning, predicting, and visualizing. He models these strategies during read-alouds and guided reading sessions, and provides opportunities for students to practice them independently.
• Encourage Active Reading: Mr. Anderson encourages students to engage in active reading by annotating the text, asking questions, and making predictions. He uses graphic organizers and note-taking strategies to help students organize their thoughts and track their understanding.
• Foster a Love of Reading: Mr. Anderson creates a motivating and engaging reading environment. He provides a diverse selection of reading materials that cater to students' interests and reading levels. He encourages independent reading and provides time for students to share and discuss what they have read.
• Integrate Technology: Mr. Anderson integrates technology by using digital tools and resources, such as e-books, interactive reading apps, and online discussion forums. These tools provide engaging and interactive reading experiences for students.
• Differentiated Instruction: Mr. Anderson differentiates reading comprehension instruction to meet the diverse needs of his students. He provides additional support for struggling readers and challenges advanced readers with more complex texts and higher-order thinking tasks.
• Monitor Progress: Mr. Anderson regularly assesses his students' reading comprehension skills using various assessment tools, such as quizzes, written responses, and comprehension questions. He uses the assessment data to inform his instruction and provide targeted support.

Outcomes:

By the end of the school year, Mr. Anderson’s students demonstrate significant improvement in their reading comprehension skills. They are better able to understand, interpret, and analyze texts. This improvement in comprehension translates into better overall academic performance and increased confidence in their reading abilities. Mr. Anderson’s systematic and engaging approach to reading comprehension instruction has helped his students become more proficient and motivated readers.

Reading comprehension is a vital component of literacy development, as highlighted by the National Reading Panel and supported by ongoing research. It provides the necessary foundation for academic success, critical thinking, lifelong learning, and effective communication. Effective comprehension instruction, delivered through explicit, systematic, and engaging methods, can significantly improve students' reading outcomes.

Teachers play a crucial role in fostering reading comprehension. By incorporating evidence-based strategies and providing ample practice opportunities, they can help ensure that all students develop the comprehension skills necessary for reading success. As research continues to evolve, the importance of reading comprehension remains clear, underscoring its role as a cornerstone of literacy education.

References

• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. U.S. Government Printing Office.
• Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction (pp. 205-242). International Reading Association.
• Pressley, M. (2006). Reading Instruction That Works: The Case for Balanced Teaching (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
• Snow, C. E. (2002). Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension. RAND Corporation.
• Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J. (2010). Improving Reading Comprehension in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade: A Practice Guide (NCEE 2010-4038). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
• McKeown, M. G., & Beck, I. L. (2006). Encouraging young children’s language interactions with stories. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research (Vol. 2, pp. 281-294). Guilford Press.

Vocabulary development is a critical component of literacy education, essential for reading comprehension and overall academic success. The National Reading Panel (NRP) highlighted vocabulary as one of the five key areas of reading instruction, underscoring its importance in helping children understand and engage with text. This blog post explores vocabulary development, why it is important, and how current research emphasizes its crucial role in reading and academic achievement.

What is Vocabulary Development?

Vocabulary development refers to how we acquire and expand our knowledge of words and meanings. It involves not only learning new words but also deepening the understanding of already known words. Vocabulary can be categorized into four types:

Listening Vocabulary: Words we understand when others speak. Speaking Vocabulary: Words we use when we speak. Reading Vocabulary: Words we recognize and understand when we read. Writing Vocabulary: Words we use in writing. Effective vocabulary development involves both direct and indirect methods. Direct vocabulary instruction includes explicit teaching of specific words and their meanings, while indirect vocabulary development occurs through exposure to rich language experiences, such as reading, conversation, and interactive activities. The Importance of Vocabulary Development The National Reading Panel's report emphasized the importance of vocabulary development for several reasons: Foundation for Reading Comprehension: Vocabulary knowledge is a fundamental building block for reading comprehension. Understanding the meanings of words allows readers to make sense of the text and engage with its content. Without a strong vocabulary, readers struggle to grasp the full meaning of what they read.

• Academic Success: A robust vocabulary is linked to academic success across all subjects. Students with extensive vocabularies are better able to understand complex texts, follow instructions, and engage in classroom discussions. This advantage extends beyond language arts to subjects like science, social studies, and mathematics.
• Language Development: Vocabulary development is crucial for overall language development. It enhances communication skills, enabling individuals to express themselves clearly and effectively. A rich vocabulary also supports listening and speaking skills, contributing to better social interactions and relationships.
• Critical Thinking and Cognitive Skills: A well-developed vocabulary enhances critical thinking and cognitive skills. Knowing a variety of words allows individuals to think more precisely and creatively, as they can select the most appropriate words to express their thoughts and ideas.
• Closing the Achievement Gap: Vocabulary development plays a significant role in closing the achievement gap associated with socioeconomic status. Children from lower-income families often enter school with smaller vocabularies compared to their peers from higher-income families. Effective vocabulary instruction can help bridge this gap and promote equity in education.

Current Research on Vocabulary Development

Since the publication of the NRP Report, further research has continued to support the importance of vocabulary development. Key findings from recent studies include:

• Incidental Vocabulary Learning: Research highlights the significance of incidental vocabulary learning, which occurs through exposure to rich and varied language experiences. Reading widely, engaging in conversations, and interactive play are effective ways to enhance vocabulary development.
• Direct and Explicit Instruction: While incidental learning is important, direct and explicit vocabulary instruction is also crucial. Teaching specific words and strategies for understanding and remembering them can significantly enhance vocabulary acquisition.
• Importance of Early Intervention: Early vocabulary development is predictive of later reading success. Children who enter school with strong vocabularies are more likely to become proficient readers. Early intervention programs that focus on vocabulary development can have long-lasting positive effects on literacy outcomes.
• Role of Technology: Technology can play a valuable role in vocabulary development. Educational apps, interactive e-books, and online resources can provide engaging and effective vocabulary instruction and practice.
• Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: Research emphasizes the importance of considering cultural and linguistic diversity in vocabulary instruction. Effective programs recognize and build on the linguistic backgrounds of students, incorporating culturally relevant materials and practices.

Practical Strategies for Vocabulary Development

If we are to truly understand the shift from "Balanced Literacy" or "Whole Language" to the "Science of Reading" we have to understand where it restarted. 

In the late 1990s, the National Reading Panel (NRP) was convened by the U.S. Congress to evaluate the effectiveness of different approaches to teaching children how to read. The goal was to provide a clear, evidence-based understanding of the best practices in reading instruction. The resulting report, published in 2000, has profoundly impacted reading education in the United States and beyond.

The Formation and Mission of the National Reading Panel

The National Reading Panel was established in 1997 as part of the federal Reading Excellence Act. The panel comprised 14 members, including leading scientists in reading research, representatives of colleges of education, reading teachers, educational administrators, and parents. Their mission was to assess the effectiveness of various approaches to reading instruction by reviewing existing research studies.

Methodology

The NRP's methodology was rigorous and systematic. The panel focused on studies that met high standards of scientific research, including randomized control trials and other well-designed experiments. The panel reviewed over 100,000 studies conducted since 1966 and 10,000 earlier studies. Their review process culminated in the identification of five critical areas of reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension.

Key Findings

Phonemic Awareness: Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds—phonemes—in spoken words. This skill is foundational for learning to read. The NRP found that teaching phonemic awareness significantly improves children’s reading skills, including word reading, reading comprehension, and spelling.

Phonics: Phonics instruction teaches the relationship between letters and sounds, enabling readers to decode words. The panel found that systematic and explicit phonics instruction is more effective than non-systematic or no phonics instruction. This approach is particularly beneficial for kindergarteners and first graders, as it helps them develop early reading skills that are crucial for later success.

Fluency: Reading fluency is the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. The NRP highlighted the importance of guided oral reading practices in developing fluency. Students who read aloud with feedback and guidance from teachers, parents, or peers show significant improvements in reading fluency and overall reading achievement.

Vocabulary: A robust vocabulary is essential for reading comprehension. The NRP found that vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly. Direct vocabulary instruction involves teaching specific words, while indirect instruction involves exposing students to new words through reading and conversation. Both methods are necessary to help students understand and use new vocabulary in context.

Text Comprehension: Text comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading—it involves understanding and interpreting what is read. The NRP identified several strategies that improve comprehension, including:

• Monitoring comprehension: Teaching students to be aware of their understanding of the text.
• Using graphic organizers: Visual aids that help students organize and relate information from the text.
• Answering questions: Encouraging students to answer questions about the text to improve understanding.
• Generating questions: Teaching students to ask their own questions about the text.
• Summarizing: Helping students identify the main ideas and summarize the content.

Implications for Teaching

The findings of the National Reading Panel have significant implications for reading instruction. Here are some practical ways that educators can implement these findings in the classroom:

Balanced Literacy Programs: The NRP's findings support a balanced approach to literacy instruction, integrating various methods to address the five critical areas. Educators should provide systematic and explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics, while also promoting fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension through diverse activities and reading materials.

Professional Development: Teachers need ongoing professional development to stay informed about the best practices in reading instruction. Training programs should focus on the five key areas identified by the NRP and provide teachers with practical strategies for implementing these in their classrooms.

Early Intervention:  Early identification and intervention for struggling readers are crucial. By addressing reading difficulties early, educators can prevent long-term reading problems. The NRP's findings underscore the importance of early instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics to build a strong foundation for future reading success.

Parental Involvement: Parents play a vital role in their children's reading development. Schools should encourage parents to engage in their children's reading activities and provide them with strategies to support reading at home. This can include reading aloud together, discussing books, and providing access to a variety of reading materials.

Use of Technology: Technology can be a valuable tool in reading instruction. Interactive software, e-books, and online resources can provide additional practice in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Educators should integrate technology in a way that complements traditional teaching methods.

Criticisms and Controversies

While the National Reading Panel Report has been widely influential, it has also faced criticisms and controversies. Some educators and researchers argue that the panel's focus on certain methodologies, such as phonics, downplays other important aspects of reading instruction, such as whole language approaches and the role of motivation in reading. Additionally, some critics contend that the report's emphasis on quantitative research overlooks the insights that qualitative studies can provide.

Continuing Impact and Relevance

Despite these criticisms, the NRP Report remains a cornerstone of reading instruction policy and practice. Its influence is evident in the widespread adoption of balanced literacy programs and the emphasis on evidence-based teaching strategies. Furthermore, the report has spurred ongoing research into effective reading instruction, contributing to the evolving understanding of how children learn to read.

In recent years, the science of reading has continued to advance, building on the foundation laid by the NRP. New research has further explored the cognitive processes involved in reading, the impact of socio-economic factors on reading development, and the most effective ways to support diverse learners. Educators and policymakers continue to rely on the principles outlined in the NRP Report while adapting to new findings and changing educational contexts.

The National Reading Panel Report represents a pivotal moment in the field of reading education. Its comprehensive review of research provided a clear, evidence-based framework for effective reading instruction, emphasizing the importance of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. While it has faced criticisms, its impact on educational policy and practice is undeniable. As the science of reading continues to evolve, the NRP Report remains a valuable resource for educators, guiding the way toward more effective and inclusive reading instruction.

This is the beginning of a new series on the Science of Reading. The Science of Reading impacts how everyone including special education teachers teach reading to students regardless of their disability. The difference is the accommodations and modifications we make to help students access the material. 

Chat Soon-

References

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. U.S. Government Printing Office.

Shanahan, T. (2003). The National Reading Panel Report: Practical Advice for Teachers. Learning Point Associates.

Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. National Academy Press.

The NRP Report's enduring legacy underscores the importance of rigorous, evidence-based approaches to reading instruction, ensuring that all children have the opportunity to become proficient and enthusiastic readers.

Oral Language and Scarborough’s Rope

References

The hard thing about waiting three months for iReady's classroom diagnostic data is not knowing how students will do after 10 weeks of intervention.

My state and building use iReady diagnostics three times a year for READ Plans and intervention data. (more on come on iReady-both loves and dislikes)

As a special education teacher, I only use this data to compare students to their peer group and see what kind of gains they had over the year. (I have a whole blog post coming on how my building uses iReady.)

My building relies on this information to make predictions about State testing outcomes and interventions.

For me, I look at the overall gains my students make on the five categories assessed each time. This year, I made a huge shift to building and creating a solid foundation in phonemic awareness and phonics. 

The macro data showed students made huge gains when using both Heggerty and Yoshimoto Orton-Gillingham. We lived in controlled decodable and built vocabulary through morphology. 

What didn’t improve???

Student’s vocabulary 

On iReady, students’ scores either dropped or maintained. 

I’m the first to tell you that you should never, ever make significant instructional decisions on a single piece of data. It could take you off a cliff.

But if you layer in IEP goal data and it shows everyone either made or is on target to meet their goals well within their IEP cycle …

Could layering in something, not a change continue that growth????

Could it support and build students’ vocabulary and not have all the growth drop off???

Why Focus on Vocabulary

When I explain the five reading components to parents, I use a pyramid. Phonemic awareness and phonics are the base of the pyramid. With vocabulary and comprehension coming after. Fluency is needed across all. 

To get to the top of the pyramid, word-level comprehension is needed before moving to sentence, paragraph, chapter, etc. You see where it goes. 

But what happens when you have weak word-level vocabulary????

What then? Let me explain how I landed here ...

All my phonics kiddos were placed in Orton-Gillingham. As the year progressed, the pacing of these groups slowed. In some cases stopping for a week or so on a concept, or phonogram or just working to get them unconfused. (English is so confusing.) 

As lessons got more complex and the more layers students had to work with the more, I noticed other holes. Looking back at my lesson notes and comments about student progress within lessons it became more obvious that vocabulary was one thing students were struggling with.

To be clear, I'm not talking about Tier 3 subject-specific words. I'm talking about Tier 1 words--like chair, boil, broil, etc. (here is my previous post on Vocabulary Tiers)

Yes, about half of those I pull for OG do receive pull-out language support from a Speech-Language Pathologist.

The funny (or head-banging) thing about all their iReady Vocabulary score was the “can dos” all said to teach 5 words and all through read-aloud. (This is a great idea for classroom teachers; not so much for specialists.)

What Does the Research Say

The Science of Reading (SoR) is an evidence-based approach to teaching reading that is grounded in research from cognitive psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience. It emphasizes the importance of systematically teaching foundational skills to help students become proficient readers. One crucial aspect is phonemic awareness, which involves recognizing and manipulating individual sounds in spoken words. 

By explicitly teaching students to understand the connection between letters and sounds through phonics instruction, they can decode words and read fluently. It's essential to provide activities that engage students in segmenting, blending, and manipulating sounds in words to strengthen their phonemic awareness and phonics skills.

Phonemic awareness refers to the ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds in spoken words. It is a critical skill that helps students understand the connection between letters and sounds. Phonics instruction teaches students the relationship between letters and sounds, enabling them to decode words and read fluently. Teachers should provide explicit instruction in these skills, using activities that involve segmenting, blending, and manipulating sounds in words.

Fluency is the ability to read accurately, quickly, and with expression. It is developed through repeated practice and exposure to a wide range of texts. Teachers can support fluency by providing opportunities for independent reading, modeling fluent reading, and using strategies like echo reading or choral reading. Vocabulary instruction is also crucial for reading comprehension. Teachers should explicitly teach new words, provide context clues, and encourage students to use strategies like word analysis and context to understand unfamiliar words.

Comprehension involves understanding and making meaning from text. Teachers can support comprehension by explicitly teaching strategies such as predicting, questioning, summarizing, and making connections. These strategies help students engage with the text, monitor their understanding, and make inferences. It is also essential to promote metacognition, encouraging students to think about their thinking and monitor their comprehension. By incorporating these strategies into instruction, teachers can help students become active and proficient readers.

What Does this Mean

SoR and Scarborough's Rope Model of Reading bring a new light to an old question surrounding phonics and vocabulary. The question is how to layer something in that doesn’t take away from the gains students have made.

I don’t know why this group of students have a weak vocabulary. I could blame COVID–these students were remote and hybrid during COVID. It could be the lack of direct, explicit instruction surrounding Tier 1 and Tier 2 vocabulary. Or it could be the lack of helping students make connections to previously taught vocabulary to new words.

Coming this semester, I’ll share how I plan to attack this and build students’ Tier 1 and Tier 2 vocabulary. I hope to find actionable, tangible ways for students to make gains that don’t take tons of time to get the most bang for my buck as a special education teacher all while doing my job as their special education teacher. 

Chat soon-